Verbs

Aspect

Aspect, also known as "tense contour," provides the inner structure of an event.

RTR Retrospective

usually used together with [Perspective](basic.md#perspective).

Retrospective + Monadic: ANOTHER has already done it.

Retrospective + Unbounded: ANOTHER did it (Past Simple tense).

Retrospective + Unbounded + Gnomic + Abstract: ANOTHER did it, and it has always been like that.

PRS Prospective

usually used together with [Perspective](basic.md#perspective).

Prospective + Monadic: ANOTHER will do it.

Prospective + Unbounded: ANOTHER will have done it.

Prospective + Gnomic + Abstract: ANOTHER will do it, and it will always be like that.

HAB Habitual

Description:

Habitual + Monadic: ANOTHER always does THIS. ANOTHER continues to do THIS. Habitual + Unbounded: ANOTHER used to do THIS.

PRG Progressive

THIS event is in progress.

You caught me in the midst of reading this grammar.

PCS Precessive

THIS just happened.

I just saw my old teacher.

IMM Imminent

THIS is about to start.

REG Regulative

ANOTHER is involved, engaged in THIS activity.

EPR Experiential

THIS happens in the participant's experience.

He is never healthy.

He has good sleep sometimes.

PAU Pausal

THIS action is on pause, but the actor is implied to have the intention to resume it later.

Take a break from your hard work!

CSS Cessative

THIS event is stopped.

He stopped breathing.

RCS Recessative

THIS event is stopped again after a previous stop.

The car stopped moving again.

RSM Resumptive

THIS event is resumed.

She started talking again.

RGR Regressive

The action of CONTEXT happens again by the will of ANOTHER actor after a break.

He returned to his duties after a disease.

PCL Preclusive

THIS happens all in one act.

He ran to the finish without stopping.

And she just lifted the rock in one attempt.

IMD Intermediative

THIS happens at some point of the CONTEXT event.

CNT Continuative

THIS event continues.

• She continued singing.

• She no longer practices yoga.

• He stood in the rain waiting for his dog.

ICS Incessative

THIS event continues without stopping.

• And he kept trying to lift it.

PMP Preemptive

THIS occurs once, for the first time, or finally.

CLM Climactic

THIS occurs for the last time, finally.

• They successfully resolved the region's ecological problems once and for all.

PTC Protractive

THIS occurs for a long time. When used with roots specifying short durations, it implies that this happens for an extended period.

• Protractive + Contextual: THIS happens for too long.

• Protractive + Punctual: THIS happens for too long.

• It rained all week long.

TMP Temporary

THIS only happens in the present CONTEXT.

• I will leave it here for now.

MTV Motive

THIS occurs without ANOTHER's presence in this CONTEXT.

• He went for a walk with the dog in the mountains.

SQN Sequential

THIS is an event with sequential stages forming a complete process or cycle.

• The generation dies off so that the next cycle can start.

• Check off the elements and report to the boss.

CSQ Consequential

THIS action proceeds despite possible undesired consequences.

• Nevertheless, he entered the cage with the lion.

EPD Expeditive

THIS happens hastily.

• He put on clothes in a rush.

DCL Disclusive

ANOTHER seems to be THIS.

• He turned out to be a spy.

CCL Conclusive

THIS is a direct result of the ATTACHED event.

• He ended up drowning while walking on thin ice.

CUL Culminative

THIS is a direct result of the prolonged complex ATTACHED event.

• Eventually, he had to reach out to the police.

TRD Tardative

THIS diminishes in intensity over time.

• The sunlight is gradually fading away.

• I find teaching children less enjoyable.

TNS Transitional

ANOTHER actor is preparing to engage in THIS action.

• I'm becoming accustomed to your techniques.

ITC Intercommutative

THIS is a rebound action triggered by the ATTACHED event.

• And I retaliated against him.

• And she chuckled in response.

CSM Consumptive

THIS action is the essence of the CONTEXT event.

• He stood waiting for her for three hours straight.

Examples

• RTR already/simple past with unbounded
• PRS +M will; +U will have; +N/A from now on
• HAB used to
• PRG in the middle of -ing
• IMM just about to
• PCS happened just now
• REG involved/engaged in doing
• EPR at some point in one's experience
• RSM resumed doing
• CSS stopped doing
• RCS stopped doing again
• PAU paused in/take a break from
• RGR returned after a hiatus
• PCL all in one go
• CNT keep on/still; not anymore when negative
• ICS continues on and on
• PMP just for once/at last
• CLM once and for all/for the last time
• PTC for a long period of time; +CONTEXTUAL or +PUNCTUAL means long-delayed
• TMP for the time being
• MTV brb doing something
• CSQ go ahead and do something anyway
• SQN to do a series of actions as a single event: "He's checking off each item..."
• EPD hurry up and
• DCL turn out to be
• CCL end up/reach the point where
• CUL eventually/in the end
• IMD takes place at some point
• TRD to get tired of doing
• TNS to take up/to start to
• ITC to do something back ("The boy threw it back")
• CSM spend one's time

Phase

Note that an experimental set of predicates to describe Phase was introduced at jbovlaste.lojban.org. The set allows scoping of Phase.

CTX Contextual

THIS is a single act, not a point event, happens once, not iterated, duration is not considered.

paroi, paroi ze'a

PUN Punctual

THIS is a point perfective event.

• It exploded.
• It was a lightning.
• The car collided.
• He stabbed her.
• And then a click sound happened.

co'i

ITR Iterative

THIS is a repetition of a [Punctual](verbs.md#pun-punctual) event in a regular staccato manner.

• And she played staccato.
• The alarm started ringing.

za'uroi je di'i co'i

REP Repetitive

THIS is a repetition of a [Contextual](verbs.md#ctx-contextual) event in a regular staccato manner.

• I heard the honk repeated several times.

za'uroi je di'i, za'uroi je di'i ze'a

ITM Intermittent

THIS is an [Iterative](verbs.md#itr-iterative) event but with some [Punctual](verbs.md#pun-punctual) events standing apart between contextually meaningful intervals.

• Each refrain starts with a click sound.

RCT Recurrent

THIS is a repetition of a [Contextual](verbs.md#ctx-contextual) event in a regular staccato manner but with the [Contextual](verbs.md#ctx-contextual) events standing apart between contextually meaningful intervals.

• The sound of a cuckoo was heard several times while we were eating dinner.

FRE Frequentative

An [Iterative](verbs.md#itr-iterative) event X is repeated, with each instance of X separated by meaningful intervals, thus constituting THIS event. THIS is of [Contextual](verbs.md#ctx-contextual) type.

FRG Fragmentative

Irregularly repeated [Punctual](verbs.md#pun-punctual) events form THIS [Contextual](verbs.md#ctx-contextual) event.

ze'a di'inai co'i

FLC Fluctuative

THIS is a series of irregularly repeated [Punctual](verbs.md#pun-punctual) and non-punctual events.

• The building was on fire with short explosions that were followed by the tongues of fire licking the wood. And that was happening here and there.

Function

STA Stative

THIS is in a non-causative, non-dynamic state. Suitable for describing physical states like temperature or state of mind.

• She smiles due to a disease.

DYN Dynamic

THIS is in a causative/dynamic state. It involves actions, functions, or activities.

• She smiled at him.

MNF Manifestive

THIS is a manifestation of identity.

• Plato is a human.

• My uncle is a president.

me, jarco

DSC Descriptive

THIS shows appearance in THIS-UNDECORATED manner. It provides adjective-like descriptions.

Usage examples

• I'm happy because of Ithkuil. Ithkuil makes me happy.

• I'm happy (Stative) because Ithkuil exists.

• I express joy because of Ithkuil.

• STA: A state of consuming a mango.

• DYN: Consume a mango.

• MNF: to be a mango being consumed.

• DSC: to resemble a mango being consumed.

• DYN: I sow a tree.

• STA: The tree is being sown.

• MNF: It's a tree being sown.

• DSC: It appears to me like a tree being sown.

Mood

Note that in the following examples, the choice of the metalinguistic indicator sei over fi'o/noi'a/poi'a/soi'a is up to you.

FAC Factual

THIS is certain without any ATTACHED presuppositions.

• His dog is large (it's known that there is his dog and that it's large).

pa sei fatci se'u gerku pe ra cu barda sei fatci

SUB Subjunctive

The ATTACHED presupposition is certain, but CONTEXT itself is not. Use [Bias](verbs.md#bias) or [Validation](metalinguistic.md#validation) to clarify factuality.

• Perhaps his dog is large. (it's known that there is his dog, but it's unknown if it's large)

pa sei fatci se'u gerku pe ra cu barda ju'ocu'i

ASM Assumptive

The ATTACHED presupposition is uncertain.

• Only if he has a dog, then it's large.

SPC Speculative

both the ATTACHED presupposition and CONTEXT are uncertain.

• Perhaps he has a dog, and if he does, perhaps it's large.

COU Counterfactive

The ATTACHED presupposition is false or counterfactual. But if it were true, then CONTEXT would also be true.

• His dog would have been large by now. But he has no dog.

[?] je'unai

HYP Hypothetical

The presupposition ATTACHED is counterfactual, and the context might be true or not.

His dog might have grown big by now. But he has no dog.

IPL Implicative

The factuality of CONTEXT depends on the factuality of the presupposition ATTACHED. See [Wikipedia article](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemic_possibility) for more information.

His dog must be big by now.

ASC Ascriptive

Same as [Implicative](verbs.md#ipl-implicative), but CONTEXT is uncertain.

His dog might be big by now (e.g., because he has lots of food at home)

Version

PRC Processual

The goal/end state of the CONTEXT process is not focused, if present at all.

CPT Completive

The CONTEXT process is intended to succeed/finish as expected.

Usage examples

[Processual](verbs.md#prc-processual) and [Completive](verbs.md#cpt-completive).

I studied Ithkuil and mastered it.

I tried and I succeeded.

I chased the Rabbit and caught it.

I was eating the mango and ate it all up.

I was crashing the house and totally destroyed it.

I used all the petrol up.

I searched for a perfect language and found it.

mo'u

[?] uo

INE Ineffectual

There is an intention in the CONTEXT for [Processual](verbs.md#prc-processual) and is not yet successful or unsuccessful.

I tried to eat the mango but couldn't.

INC Incompletive

There is an intention in the CONTEXT for [Completive](verbs.md#cpt-completive) but is unsuccessful.

• I attempted to consume the mango but failed.

PST Positive

there is an intention in CONTEXT for [Processual](verbs.md#prc-processual) and it is successful.

• I managed to eat the mango.

EFC Effective

there is an intention in CONTEXT for [Completive](verbs.md#cpt-completive) and it is successful.

• I managed to eat the mango completely.

Bias

Lojban translations are mainly done by la gejyspa

ASU Assurative

CONTEXT is certain to SPEAKER.

• Definitely, without a doubt

ju'o

HPB Hyperbolic

CONTEXT is an exaggeration on the part of SPEAKER.

• That's absolutely not what I anticipated.

[?] ba'u

COI Coincidental

CONTEXT is a case of serendipity according to SPEAKER.

• Fortunately, I wasn't there at that time.

fu'au

ACP Acceptive

CONTEXT is generally accepted according to SPEAKER.

• Whether you like it or not, that's the way it is.

[?] si'au

RAC Reactive

CONTEXT is a surprise to SPEAKER. CONTEXT causes astonishment in SPEAKER.

• Oh. My. Goodness!

• Wow!

ue, u'e

STU Stupefactive

CONTEXT causes wonder or reflection, awe in SPEAKER.

• Who would have thought he could find her.

u'e

CTV Contemplative

CONTEXT causes puzzlement in SPEAKER, can still be a discovery, just that the discovery is perplexing.

Hm. How odd…

What? Huh?

uanai, ue

DPV Desperative

CONTEXT causes despair in SPEAKER, bad news coming.

a'onai

RVL Revelative

CONTEXT is a discovery to SPEAKER.

Aha! Eureka!

ua

GRT Gratificative

CONTEXT is a pleasure bliss to SPEAKER.

How nice...

oinai ui o'u

SOL Solicitive

CONTEXT is requested by SPEAKER.

Please … come on!

e'o, e'osai, e'e

SEL Selective

THIS is SPEAKER's point of view on CONTEXT.

As I see it …

pe'i, se'o, zu'u

IRO Ironic

CONTEXT is an understatement, irony on the part of SPEAKER.

Well, that's a nice haircut (but it's actually ugly to SPEAKER).

xo'o, je'unai

EXA Exasperative

SPEAKER is exasperated. In its intensive form can describe a situation when SPEAKER is on the verge of repeating listener's words due to exasperation.

Hey, don't you understand …?

.o'onairu'e

LTL Literal

Strictly speaking...

sa'e, pe'anai

CRR Corrective

What I actually mean...

sa'e mau'i, to'unai

[?] si/sa/su group

EUP Euphemistic

In other words ...

va'i

SKP Skeptical

SPEAKER shows skepticism and incredulity regarding CONTEXT.

Not that one would believe in that, but ...

.ianai

CYN Cynical

SPEAKER shows cynical surprise and sarcasm towards CONTEXT.

Seriously?!

Oh yeah, sure! [sarcastically]

[?] this implies more than an “I can't believe.” u'i, ianai, xo'o, zo'odaipei

CTP Contemptive

SPEAKER disapproves and doesn't like CONTEXT. CONTEXT is disgusting to SPEAKER.

.oi, .a'unai, .i'anai, iunai

DSM Dismissive

lowering of expectations in the listener.

Well, that's still okay with you.

So what?

[?] ga'inai possibly?

IDG Indignative

second-guessing.

Pardon?

Repeat once again, you want me to …?!

Ehm, what?

je'enai, ke'o

[?] ki'a

SGS Suggestive

SPEAKER suggests CONTEXT as a mental construct.

Imagine this…

What if we …

Let's assume we ...

ru'a, da'i+conditionals

PPV Propositive

CONTEXT is a proposal or suggestion on behalf of SPEAKER.

How about a picnic next weekend?

I'm suggesting it one last time. Take it or leave it.

e'u, pei

Modality

Modality determines types of imaginary/non-imaginary events like those described by:

ANOTHER wants/needs/asks to DO THIS.

ANOTHER may/can/must/should DO THIS.

• ANOTHER chooses to DO THIS (non-imaginary).

• ANOTHER believes that THIS happens.

ANOTHER is usually Activative, THIS usually changes Essence, Perspective, and Modality at the same time (e.g. Abstract Perspective, Representative (if imaginary) Essence).

DES Desiderative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) wants THIS to happen, ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) has a desire for THIS to happen.

ASP Aspirative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) wishes that THIS happens, ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) hopes that THIS happens.

EPC Expectative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) expects THIS to happen.

CRD Credential

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) believes that THIS is true. Doesn't imply “to opine that ...”.

REQ Requisitive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) makes a request so that THIS happens.

EXH Exhortative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) demands that THIS should happen.

OPR Opportunitive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) has the opportunity to do THIS.

CPC Capacitative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) has the ability to do THIS, is capable of doing THIS, could do THIS.

PRM Permissive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) is allowed to do THIS, has permission to do THIS, may do THIS (having permissions).

May I come in?

PTN Potential

It's possible that THIS happens; ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) can potentially be/do THIS.

The gates may open at any time.

CLS Compulsory

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) must do THIS, has to do THIS, is compulsory obliged to be/do THIS.

OBG Obligative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) ought to be/do THIS, should do THIS.

You should tell that to your parents.

It would be better if you were wearing a scarf.

Students shall not argue with professors.

IMS Impositive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) is supposed to be/do THIS, is expected to do THIS.

• You are not supposed to be here.

• The train is to arrive in 5 minutes.

ADV Advocative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) suggests that THIS happen, proposes that THIS happen.

ITV Intentive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) has the intention to be/do THIS, plans to do THIS.

ANT Anticipative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) looks forward to THIS, anticipates THIS.

DSP Dispositive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) is willing to do THIS.

PRE Preparative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) is ready for THIS, is prepared to be/do THIS.

NEC Necessitative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) needs to be/do THIS. It's necessary for ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) to be/do THIS.

DCV Decisive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) chooses to do THIS, makes THIS choice.

PTV Proclivitive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) tends to do/be THIS, has THIS trend, is likely to be THIS, is prone to have THIS.

VOL Voluntative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) volunteers to do THIS and offers THIS help.

ACC Accordative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) agrees to do THIS.

ICL Inclinative

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) is up for doing THIS and suddenly desires to do THIS.

CML Compulsive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) feels a compulsion and a need to do THIS.

DVR Divertive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) enjoys doing THIS and likes to do THIS.

DVT Devotive

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) is devoted and committed to doing THIS.

PFT Preferential

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) prefers THIS.

I would rather eat a mango.

IPS Impressional

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) has a subjective impression that THIS is true.

I feel that he was lying to me.

PMS Promissory

ANOTHER [Activative](cases.md#act-activative) promises that ANOTHER will do THIS.

I swear I will visit your grandmother on my way home next week.

Examples

DES to want to

• ASP hopes to
• EPC expects to
• CRD believes that
• REQ requests that
• EXH demands that
• OPR has the opportunity to
• CPC has the ability to
• PRM is permitted to
• PTN has the possibility of
• CLS must do/have to do
• OBG should/ought to
• IMS is expected to
• ADV suggests that
• ITV intends to
• ANT looks forward to
• DSP is willing to
• PRE is ready to
• NEC is necessary to
• DCV decides to/chooses to
• PTV tends to/be prone to
• VOL offers to/volunteers to
• ACC agrees to
• ICL feels like/is up for
• CML feels driven to/feels a need to
• DVR likes to/enjoys
• DVT is devoted to/is committed to
• PFT prefers/would rather
• IPS has an impression/feels that; a subjective belief/impression
• PMS promises/swears that

Valence

Marks how several members of CONTEXT participate in action.

MNO Monoactive

THIS has no other participant in the action of CONTEXT.

PRL Parallel

ANOTHER participated in the action of CONTEXT alongside THIS.

They built the house together.

One would have had the same opinion in this situation.

PTI Participative

ANOTHER and THIS both take part in a complete action.

They both took part in the Olympic Games.

CRO Corollary

THIS has various actions related to CONTEXT.

The team built the house (some made the basement, others made the roof, etc.)

CPL Complementary

THIS performs one side of the action, and ANOTHER performs the other side. The two sides complete the action of CONTEXT.

My friend and I played chess.

She told me a fairy tale.

RCP Reciprocal

THIS and every other example of a ANOTHER participant have a reciprocal relationship.

They talk to each other.

NNR Nonrelational

ANOTHER participates in an activity irrelevant to CONTEXT.

He helped build the house while she didn't.

DUP Duplicative

ANOTHER performs the same activity as THIS.

I built a house and so did she.

IMT Imitative

ANOTHER imitates, trying to replicate the action performed by THIS.

He built a card house for her (and she tried to reproduce it).

DEM Demonstrative

ANOTHER shows THIS how the action is done.

The child performed an exercise in skating after her trainer.

I showed her how to build a house.

RES Resistive

ANOTHER avoids taking the action of CONTEXT performed by THIS.

Still, they took me to the zoo (although I didn't want to go).

CNG Contingent

THIS performs an action for ANOTHER to participate in the next expected state of the action.

I prepare a sauna for them (so that they may bathe).

IDC Indicative

ANOTHER [Affective](cases.md#aff-affective) or ANOTHER [Dative](cases.md#dat-dative) gains an understanding, the meaning of the action of THIS from ANOTHER [Inducive](cases.md#ind-inducive).

I read the text to them (and they understood the subtext).

MUT Mutual

ANOTHER and THIS take turns performing the action.

Just take one step at a time.

We work every other day.