Cases

It would be nice to find at least one preposition for each case (xe cukta, te fukpi, etc. are too long in this regard whereas xebe'i and veka'a are yummy). But I'm not sure that the language has all the cases that we might need. Who knows, one may decide that we need 1342 cases. Now what? Its own preposition for each predicate place?

Transrelative cases

Almost half of the world's languages have [Ergative](cases.md#erg-ergative)-[Absolutive](cases.md#abs-absolutive) structure. The other half has a nominative-accusative structure. So two duads. It's interesting that [Ergative](cases.md#erg-ergative) and [Absolutive](cases.md#abs-absolutive) are not two parts of a duad in Ithkuil but instead just two cases among many others.

OBL Oblique

THIS plays the role of content.

It's a present from my grandmother.

This is what I want.

The floor is made of stone (Oblique).

ERG Ergative

THIS plays the role of the agent.

THIS agent, while having some will, starts an act of CONTEXT resulting in some change of properties in ANOTHER [Absolutive](cases.md#abs-absolutive).

The dog bit the man.

Ergative bit the man.

The policeman forced the criminal to stop.

Ergative forced Absolutive to stop.

le gasnu, le zukte

le gasnu might reflect the Ergative Case better since the goal-orientation...ness of an event can be handled by the Version. The Processual Version states that no goal of the act is taken into account, the process is not described as having the end.

ABS Absolutive

THIS plays the role of the patient. The [Ergative](cases.md#erg-ergative) might not be present in CONTEXT.

A coin fell from above.

Absolutive fell from above.

[ABS-argument] jai se gasnu == tu'a [ABS-argument] se gasnu where tu'a ko'a == le su'u co'e ko'a

[ABS-argument] jai se rinka

[ABS-argument] jai se bapli

ERG gasnu le su'u co'e ABS

Interestingly, le rinka is an abstraction, whereas le gasnu is an object. If sumti-raising were always allowed in Lojban, then we would have rinka fi zi'o == gasnu

Combination of Ergative and Absolutive

1. I drove the car fast.

2. The car went fast.

The two sentences show different focus. In Ithkuil, dropping the [Ergative](cases.md#erg-ergative)-labeled formative changes the meaning from 1. to 2.

Omit gasnu or derived verbs

Use zi'o

ACT Activative

THIS is engaged in a [Modality](verbs.md#modality) CONTEXT state of creating a currently unrealized situation that may realize at some step.

You should go home.

I need some rest.

I want you to stop.

I was expecting them to settle down.

I ask you to stay.

By default, many places have implicit da'i/ju'anai. nitcu, sarcu, djica, bilga, kanpe, pacna, cpedu, minde, troci, djusku

EFF Effectuative

THIS creates a chain of events.

EFF jai rinka ko'e == tu'a EFF rinka ko'e i.e. EFF is an argument of the co'e predicate that effects (rinka)-event of ko'e.

le curmi, the role of enabler.

DER Derivative

THIS is a force or natural event (e.g. tsunami, breeze).

marks events that cause something relevant.

rinka, bapli, zunti

notice spuda/frati for another argument of the same clause

SIT Situative

THIS forms a shadow context for ANOTHER clause. It doesn't imply any agency/patiency relationships with the event of the clause.

Due to cold weather, we won't go to school today.

In the presence of criminal elements, we can't expect any desire for higher education.

With the help of this app, we will get there soon.

raising, indirect causation, ki'u.

[?] ni'i

va'o

AFF Affective

THIS plays the role of experiencer in CONTEXT, THIS is in a state not requiring will. If THIS induced the state, then [Inducive](cases.md#ind-inducive) is to be used instead.

I'm in pain.

I was surprised.

The child is about to sleep.

I feel sorry for him.

IND Inducive

THIS is both [Ergative](cases.md#erg-ergative) and [Absolutive](cases.md#abs-absolutive).

The dog started jumping.

She went out.

rephrased using vo'a, ri, le nei, le no'a

fa ko'a fe ko'a jai se gasnu fai le ka broda

[?] jalge

DAT Dative

THIS is a recipient in the CONTEXT of a change of possession.

THIS is a listener in the CONTEXT of saying words.

• She is renting a room.

• I am listening to you very carefully!

INS Instrumental

THIS is used for the action in a specific CONTEXT.

• You can construct it with wood and glue.

• The wire assisted me in opening the box.

sepi'o, tutci

Resume

ERG zukte le nu le nei cu broda ko'e

EFF gasnu le nu ko'a broda

AFF jai se zukte

IND broda

DER jai rinka le nu ko'e broda ko'i

Possessive cases

POS Possessive

THIS alienably possesses ANOTHER. No inherent relation is implied; the two arguments describe two objects that can be physically separated without losing their defining properties except for the possession/being possessed marked with the [Possessive](cases.md#pos-possessive) in question.

• Where is my chair?

pe, poi ke'a srana, po, poi sazri, poi jatna

[?] bu'u

PRP Proprietive

THIS alienably possesses ANOTHER. No inherent relation is implied; possession here implies legal or social ownership.

• It's my book. I bought it.

• It's my car, but you may borrow it for a while.

• His description of the language is actually John's.

po'e

GEN Genitive

THIS is inalienably possessed by ANOTHER.

• Touch his hand; it's cold.

• She is my mother.

• That's her nature.

no marker, mamta be ko'a,se jinzi be ko'a, pagbu be ko'a, sometimes GEN is built into predicates themselves.

ATT Attributive

THIS is “possessed” by ANOTHER [Affective](cases.md#aff-affective).

My pain is intense.

His emotions won't endure.

PDC Productive

THIS is the creator.

This painting was created by me.

It's my poem.

So that's our plan.

le finti

ITP Interpretative

THIS creates the necessary understanding of ANOTHER.

Tolstoy's Russia

Attenborough's planet

The world through the eyes of a child

voi ko'a ganse

OGN Originative

THIS is the literal or metaphorical source of ANOTHER. Notice that [Ablative](cases.md#abl-ablative) marks the beginning points of a route, whereas [Originative](cases.md#ogn-originative) provides necessary source context to avoid confusion with similar arguments.

Our donations

Milk from a cow

Wheel of a car

Fairy tales from my grandmother (that she relayed to us)

Brazilian men are handsome (even when they live in Sweden)

krasi, ra'i, poi pu jbena fo ko'a, poi mo'u klama fi ko'a

Associative cases

PAR Partitive

THIS is a part of some uncountable ANOTHER (the latter can be omitted). Numbers can be marked with [Partitive](cases.md#par-partitive) too (like “threesome of …”).

I ate a piece of cake.

A loaf of bread, please.

A caravan of camels, horses, and men

I drank some apple juice.

I drank some water.

I bought three books.

loi, pagbu, lu'a loi, Nmei le'i su'o ko'a

CPS Compositive

THIS is a substance of ANOTHER.

THIS are some resources for ANOTHER.

They are made of meat.

• It's a golden statue.
• It's a pile of bullshit.
• Give me the wooden hammer, please.
• It's a crowd of youngsters.
• I hate plastic bags.
• I like to cook with olive oil.
• I had to drink 2 bottles of water to satisfy my thirst.

finti fo CPS, CPS marji ko'a, zbasu fi CPS, CPS livla, CPS se xaksu, pilno

PRD Predicative

marks THIS as a basis or requirement for ANOTHER. Compare: unlike [Derivative](cases.md#der-derivative), [Instrumental](cases.md#ins-instrumental) doesn't imply causation (e.g. attitude may be caused by events but it doesn't depend on events, and hence [Predicative](cases.md#prd-predicative) is not applicable).

• Behaviour based on common sense
• Research supported by donations
• Sales relying on foreign customers

lacri/se jicmu/se sarji PRD

DEP Dependent

CONTEXT happens depending on THIS, which is not known in CONTEXT.

• Depending on her mood we may go on vacation.

MED Mediative

THIS is a medium through which ANOTHER is realized. Compare: [Instrumental](cases.md#ins-instrumental) marks instrumental means to complete an action, not media.

• I heard some news on TV.
• I came here by train.
• You may send it via websocket protocol.
• Bees show location by dancing.

MED xe benji gi'a xe cukta gi'a te fukpi gi'a ve cusku Should there be one word for that? I'm not sure. Those are different media.

APL Applicative

THIS is the temporary in-context purpose for which ANOTHER is to be employed.

• Let this be a box for pencils and pens.

• Let's use that room for the guests who will come tomorrow.

• Use the iron to extinguish the fire.

• Those are rocks for a catapult.

pilno APL, sepi'o APL

Commutative

THIS is what ANOTHER (e.g. ANOTHER [Ergative](cases.md#erg-ergative)) receives in exchange for their actions.

• He let us in exchange for a few local coins.

COM Comitative

THIS accompanies ANOTHER.

• He was walking with his dogs.

UTL Utilitative

THIS is being used in the event of the action of ANOTHER in CONTEXT but is not used to perform the action of CONTEXT itself (unlike [Instrumental](cases.md#ins-instrumental)).

• A man with a cow showed up at the exhibition.

voi pilno

CNJ Conjunctive

ANOTHER is engaged in the same activity together with THIS. THIS is a member of the same team as ANOTHER.

• They worked together with their boss on the new project.

ABE Abessive

ANOTHER is without THIS. ANOTHER is not accompanied by THIS.

• down to a sunless sea.

CVS Conversive

in an imagined CONTEXT THIS is what won't happen in the end.

in an imagined CONTEXT THIS is what prevents the expected result from happening.

• If we don't find a gas station soon, we will stop.

• It could have been a great party if the police hadn't shown up.

COR Correlative

THIS is characterized by ANOTHER, THIS is what ANOTHER can be associated with, THIS is the frame of reference for ANOTHER. Can be translated using short relative clauses like “that has to do with ...”.

The suspect is approximately 5 meters in front of me.

It is right beside me.

The ecological Correlative situation is deteriorating.

CNV Conductive

THIS is a significant context of ANOTHER.

He is a university student.

He is a family man.

I feel uneasy.

use tanru

munje, vanbi

PUR Purposive

THIS is the primary inherent purpose of ANOTHER.

Drop it into the trash bin.

Please, use the coffee machine.

finti fi PUR, PUR kosmu, PUR te zukte, tezu'e PUR, minji PUR

CSD Considerative

THIS is the context under which ANOTHER occurs.

According to the law, he can't leave the city.

In my opinion, he is just a fool.

The plane will land according to schedule.

CSD cusku/djuno/jinvi/vanbi, cu'u/du'o/va'o CSD

ESS Essive

THIS is the role under which ANOTHER is identified.

They call me Cuban Pete.

I consider him a friend.

He entered the building as an official representative.

ESS cmene

mi'a jinvi ledu'u do sidju le nei

ASI Assimilative

THIS is a metaphorical counterpart of ANOTHER in CONTEXT; THIS looks like ANOTHER.

She walks like a diva.

simsa, tasmi, tamsmi, tai

FUN Functive

THIS is the manner in which ANOTHER occurs.

She spoke softly.

He ran quickly.

His actions were chaotic.

You are so stubborn when it comes to exams.

just a simple fi'o for those examples would do or wrapping a clause into a place of THIS. Also tai, tasmi, noi'a, soi'a, poi'a

TFM Transformative

THIS is the last stage of a process.

I finished the meal.

Finally, we have arrived.

She transformed her into a sleeping beauty.

He drove until his death.

mo'u, co'a, binxo

REF Referential

THIS is the referent of ANOTHER.

Personally, I will stay here.

Let's discuss language copyright.

What is your opinion on plagiarism?

It's a tale of love and hate.

Regarding fair use, I believe everyone has the right to use art for personal purposes.

sera'a REF

CLA Classificative

THIS is a basis for ordering or grouping elements. For items acting sequentially, use Coordinative Suffixes instead.

Please, arrange the 10 items in a line.

I categorized the query results by user ID.

I sorted the query results by user ID but in reverse order.

There were several pairs of shoes lying there.

He placed them horizontally.

The number of birds coming here is increasing day by day.

[?] fi'o se porsi, te ganzu, se cnici, mi ganzu fi'o se porsi CLA, tela'u

mi kancu fo li mu

IDP Interdependent

THIS has an interdependent relationship with ANOTHER. Both THIS and ANOTHER are required for the relationship to exist. [Partitive](cases.md#par-partitive) is not implied.

She is my teacher.

A taxi driver.

Robin is the leader of our team.

general logic of predicates. “my teacher” is ctuca fe mi

BEN Benefactive

ANOTHER occurs for the benefit of THIS.

The food is for the dog.

We threw a birthday party for him.

This medicine will be beneficial for your health.

In accordance with your suggestion, I will act as you recommended.

As per our tradition, you are required to maintain silence here.

seva'u, se xamgu, fi'o se sinma, ki'u

TSP Transpositive

THIS replaces ANOTHER.

He covered the dinner expenses on my behalf.

She drove the car so that he could have some rest.

krati, basti

PVS Provisional

CONTEXT occurs if and only if THIS occurs. THIS is necessary for CONTEXT to take place.

I will attend your party only if there is no alcohol.

PTL Postulative

If THIS occurs, then CONTEXT also occurs. THIS is enough for CONTEXT to happen.

If it's sunny, I will go out.

CRS Contrastive

THIS is substituted with ANOTHER in CONTEXT.

Instead of a hurricane, we experienced a sunny day.

I prefer apples to bananas.

She holds the position of a principal rather than a teacher.

seba'i applied to entities, properties, and events, zmadu, ku'i

CMP Comparative

CONTEXT occurs in contrast to THIS. Does not imply “either ... or ...”

I enjoy music while she favors art.

The café is located in a neighboring building (not in this one).

CON Concessive

CONTEXT occurs despite THIS.

Although he appears rude, I will assist him.

Despite having lived in this country for 3 years, I still can't grasp the local slang.

EXC Exceptive

THIS is an exception to ANOTHER.

I like all genres of music except for pop music.

AVR Aversive

ANOTHER performs the action of CONTEXT to avoid THIS.

She left the country out of fear for her child's life.

Temporal (time) cases

SML Simultaneitive

THIS occurs simultaneously with the CONTEXT event.

I was at home when it was all happening.

ASS Assessive

The duration of THIS measures the CONTEXT event.

The provider charges per minute.

I go to the gym once a month.

I rode the bike at 100 kilometers per hour.

CNR Concursive

THIS occurs during the CONTEXT period, within the boundaries of the CONTEXT period. It is also used to separate clauses.

I don't talk while eating.

Did you sleep well last night?

ACS Accessive

CONTEXT occurs during the THIS [Punctual](verbs.md#pun-punctual) event.

When your mother comes home, call me.

DFF Diffusive

THIS occurs around the time of the CONTEXT.

At that time, learning languages wasn't popular.

Your dog has grown much bigger over the last few months.

PER Periodic

CONTEXT occurs at the time of the structured THIS event.

I finished the course in 2 weeks.

I haven't been doing great on the last couple of exams.

PRO Prolapsive

THIS occurs throughout the CONTEXT.

I read the book for 30 minutes.

It will be snowing all day tomorrow.

It took me a minute or so to understand that.

PCV Precursive

THIS occurs before the CONTEXT.

I ate before you came.

PCR Postcursive

THIS happens after CONTEXT.

He came and then she laughed.

We'll have dinner after the concert.

ELP Elapsive

CONTEXT happened THIS (units of time) ago.

The dog wasn't so big three months ago.

ALP Allapsive

CONTEXT will happen in THIS (units of time).

He will be here in three weeks.

Two minutes later, there was nobody in the room.

INP Interpolative

CONTEXT is repeated having THIS duration in each occurrence.

The cuckoo made several repetitive sounds, each 3 seconds long.

The explosions were separated by periods of silence, each taking a minute or so.

EPS Episodic

CONTEXT happens every THIS (duration).

I check my mailbox every hour.

He goes to a temple every day off.

PLM Prolimitive

CONTEXT is limited in time by THIS.

By the time I get there, you will be sleeping.

LIM Limitative

CONTEXT happens in time for THIS.

And I arrived just in time to see them coming out.

Spatial cases

see [Correlative](cases.md#cor-correlative) in sentences involving spatial direction or orientation.

LOC Locative

THIS is in a static position at CONTEXT.

I'm on 5th Avenue.

Let's meet at her place.

I'm inside the building.

It's on the wall.

ne'i, bu'u, di'o

ORI Orientative

THIS serves as the “face” of movement, the arrow end of movement vector.

• I moved backward.

• The bird fell with its tail pointing downward.

PSV Procursive

THIS is a part of the body or object facing CONTEXT (usually [Allative](cases.md#all-allative) CONTEXT) thus forming the event.

• My hand touched the wall.

• The car was too close to the motorcycle on its side.

ALL Allative

THIS indicates the direction of movement.

• I ran westward.

• The dog jumped towards the hare.

• I threw the stick at the dog.

• I walked towards those mountains.

ABL Ablative

THIS indicates the origin of movement or orientation.

• The fox emerged from that hole.

• He looked away from the tree.

NAV Navigative

THIS indicates the route of movement or vector.

• I looked down the river.

• The dog crossed the street.

Vocative

• Oh ye of little faith!

doi